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Psychology: ideas and frameworks explained

A collection of ideas, frameworks and techniques related to Psychology, explained clearly so they are easy to understand and share.

The positive and negative reinforcing cycles of try new things and anxiety - with a boat sailing from the harbourTrying New ThingsPyrrhic saving concept showing shoppers leaving a megastore with an overloaded trolley under deal signs, captioned “If we save any more money, we’ll be ruined” – spending more to save money examplePyrrhic Saving: "Saving" money by spending moreWhat are the contradictory traits of creative people? Illustration of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s 10 paradoxical personality traits, showing each pair of opposites such as energetic and restful, smart and naive, and passionate and objective.10 Contradictory Traits of Creative PeopleApples and ideas quote (not) from George Bernard Shaw illustrated as a concept - giving an apple vs sharing an ideaApples and IdeasThe Repeated Word Illusion using "I love Paris in the the Springtime" with a repeated "the" set in a pyramid layoutThe Repeated Word IllusionWhat is Murphy’s Law? Meaning and example shown by a giant box labeled “This Way Up” lying upside down showing "Anything that can go wrong will go wrong."Murphy's LawWhat is Grandma’s Rule? Illustration of the Premack Principle showing a child told ‘Vegetables first, then dessert’ and the First, Then RuleGrandma's Rule: First___, Then___The Trolley Problem original variant with the runaway trolley and moral dilemma of switching the tracksThe Trolley ProblemWhat is the meaning of cognitive offloading? Shown by delegating our critical thinking to tools like calculators or AI chatbotsCognitive Offloading: Delegating Our ThinkingDon't think of an elephant framing example where even negating a frame activates itDon't Think of an ElephantExamples of variable rewards and their irresistible addictive power to get us hooked like the reward chest, email, and gamblingVariable RewardsWhat is the Fight or Flight response example with someone deciding to fight, flight or freeze from a snakeFight or FlightGestalt principles of visual perception showing proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, figure and ground, symmetry and order, and common fate.Gestalt principlesWhat is a Public commitment pledge explanation - a soft commitment device shown by someone battling a desire to eat cookies with a public commitmentPublic commitment pledgeThe Fundamental Attribution Error illustration: a driver assuming someone is rude when they swerved in front of them rather than considering that they may have been running late and it been an accident - attributing character over contextThe Fundamental Attribution ErrorNormalisation of deviance: A person looks dubiously on at a building site which seems to be ignoring all the safety signs. (Normalization of deviance)The Normalisation of DevianceThe Barnum effect (also the Forer effect) illustrated by 3 people, each getting the same seemingly personalised personality test result and figuring it described them perfectly.The Barnum effectWhat is Self-serving bias example explained: two tennis players think on their contrasting fortunes, the winner proud of their athleticism (character), and the loser blaming the umpire (the situation).Self-serving biasThe Droste effect illustration: where the picture contains the picture which contains the picture which contains the picture...The Droste effectDark patterns: using design to deceive, like hiding the 'I don't need insurance' option in the country list rather than as its own optionDark patternsThe isolation effect: remembering better what stands out from a set of otherwise like items in a set. Also known as the Von Restorff effectThe isolation effectWhat is attribution bias example explained: a parent consoling a child and correcting their attribution of winning and losing to the situation and actions not to personal traitsAttribution biasWhat is Optimism bias example explained: A stunt rider overestimates their chance of leaping a canyon thanks to optimism bias. Various onlookers gasp. "Huh" says the riderOptimism biasWhat is Groupthink: People acquiescing to the manager's and what they see as others' views during a meetingGroupthinkTwo people enjoying a dialogue, one falling asleep to a monologue, and one being distracted from their book by a halfalogueHalfalogueThe side of a pyramid of needs: physiological, safety, love-belonging, esteem, self-actualizationMaslow's hierarchy of needsA sketch of extrinsic motivation with a donkey being followed by a man with a stick and in turn following a carrot that's strapped always just out of reachExtrinsic motivationSomeone asks to cut in line at the photocopier with a lame reason - but the favour and reason combo mean the person mindlessly compliesBecausePhysics envy: a football coach looks on exasperated as none of his young team play according to the planPhysics EnvyThe Rhyme As Reason Effect illustration: whilst on a stroll, one friend shrewdly convinces the other about how aphorisms that rhyme tend to be more believable, by including a rhyme in their statement. The Rhyme As Reason EffectBrilliance bias: A group of people in a gallery of portraits of famous people lament that the brilliant women were forgotten againBrilliance biasContext is King illustration: the capital letters A, B and C are handwritten in sequence on the top row. On the bottom row, it's the numbers 12, 13 and 14 - again handwritten. When you look closely, you notice that the letter B and the number 13 take exactly the same form. It is only the characters that come before and after in each sequence that define them. Context is kingT-Shirts make a Team illustration: The group of people on the left have different coloured t-shirts and seem a bit lost. The group on the right are all wearing green t-shirts and they're celebrating success. What a team! T-shirts make a teamLanguishing illustration: an unmotivated, apathetic figure sits slumped in an armchair with a TV remote in hand, clearly fed up and demoralised - for the time being at least. LanguishingConfirmation bias: people dressed in blue buy the blue newspapers at a newsstand while some reds are buying the red papers.Confirmation biasThe dilution effect illustration: showing how adding a side effect of 'itchy feet' to sleeping pills reduces perceived risk of the other side-effects of heart attack and stroke!The dilution effectFact Tennis illustration: two individuals with tennis racquets knock unproductive, point-scoring arguments back and forth over a pile of laundry. Fact tennisThe bandwagon effect: someone struggles to decide at a path forking between a long empty road of 'what they think' and one full of people and fun of 'what everyone thinks'The bandwagon effectThe bystander effect: a lady sits dazed on the floor in a busy train station while others ignore her or walk on by — someone really ought to check she's okThe Bystander EffectThe paradox of choice: a poor soul confronted by a giant pizza selection raises their expectations, wonders about everything they're missing, anticipates getting it wrong and then blames themselves for picking the wrong oneThe paradox of choiceForcing function: a person is forced into getting into shape after signing up to a marathonForcing functionWhat is Flow: the psychology of optimal experience illustrated with climbing, clear goals, feedback and matched challengeFlowThe Goal-Gradient Effect: the closer we get to a goal the harder we try - coffee stamps exampleThe goal-gradient effectSurvivorship Bias illustration: two analysts observe bullet damage, depicted by red dots, on a fighter plane returning from battle. They propose that heavier armour is added to all aircraft in the most hit areas of the plane. A third onlooker wonders whether this surviving plane tells a different story in that it returned because the most vulnerable areas weren't hit. Maybe heavier armour should be added to those areas? Survivorship biasWhat is Hope, elements of hope, cognitive model of hope from psychology from Professor CR Snyder requiring Goals, Pathways and Willpower or agencyHope: A Cognitive Model for HopeCommitment device illustration: Odysseus asking his men to tie him to the mast so that he can resist the siren's song who are kind flying womenCommitment deviceThe Boaty McBoatface effect: Someone holding up a poll for the naming of a boat which was vote-bombed to be Boaty McBoatface for a laughThe Boaty McBoatface effectApophenia example: two hikers look up into the sky with surprise to see a cloud in the form of Godzilla!ApopheniaWhat is The Overview Effect example explained: the classic moonrise photo from the Apollo 11 moon missions with 2 astronauts have a bit of a moment and need to sit down when taking in the majestic view of Earth from the moon and realise this is all we've got.The Overview Effect A Profound Shift in PerspectiveWhat is Human Risk example: an enormous line of Mongol soldiers easily march through an open gate in the Great Wall of China as the two bribed guards take a nap. Human riskFading affect bias illustration: showing that the emotional intensity of negative memories, like dropping your ice cream, fades faster than for positive memoriesFading affect biasThe three-day effect: spending three days in nature improves creativity, clarity and wellbeingThe 3-day effectProportionality Bias illustration: a dice has landed on a six and the person who rolled it gave it a really good shake beforehand. Proportionality biasThe Abilene paradox: a family sets out on a trip to Abilene on a hot dusty day only to discover on the way back that none of them actually wanted to goThe Abilene paradoxImposter Syndrome illustration: even as an appreciative audience applaud, an award recipient at the rostrum on stage questions whether they actually deserve this recognition. Imposter syndromeWhat makes people trust you? How to be trustworthy? The Trust Equation: Credibility, Reliability, Intimacy over Self-orientation from Charles Green at Trusted AdvisorsThe trust equationWhat is The Destiny Instinct example explained: the meaning of the destiny instinct shown by an individual, bent over on hands and knees, inspecting a line of ants through their magnifying glass. At some point later in time, they return to find an enormous anthill that towers overhead. The Destiny InstinctThe power of streaks illustration: a task schedule is shown as a daily grid where all but the final 2 squares have been completed. The power of streaksThe Availability Heuristic illustration: Plane crashes, cold snaps, and winning lottery tickets are shown as examples of uncommon but widely reported events that might affect the significance we associate with them. The availability heuristic (and bias)What is the Diderot Effect example explained: showing two people discussing their new sofa and deciding they have to change the room, or even moveThe Diderot EffectWhat is Dunbar's number example explained: a person can't remember the name of the one person outside their circles of closer friends, super family, clan and tribe behind themDunbar’s number: 150The Implicit Association Test illustration: using gender roles as an example, we are asked to sort Career words into a Men's column and Home/Family words into a Women's column. We are then asked to do the opposite. One's bias is calculated as the difference in time it takes to complete both tasks. The Implicit Association TestAutonomy Mastery Purpose summary of Dan Pink's book DriveWhat drives us: autonomy, mastery, purposeThe Spotlight Effect illustration: two individuals greet one another, each illuminated by an intense spotlight as if on stage - and each secretly worry about how the other perceives their appearance.The spotlight effectWhat is The Effect Effect explained: two colleagues are left in no doubt as to the veracity of research presented to them because it has been labelled as an "effect". Indeed, one heads straight off to tell their friends about it. The Effect EffectThe Misattribution of Arousal illustration: a couple in the early stages of romance reflect on how excited they were to ride on a roller coaster together. Was the excitement due to each others' company or the roller coaster itself? Or maybe a bit of both? The misattribution of arousalWhat is crossmodal perception example showing that coffee tastes better when the machine is quiet and why plane food is less tastyCrossmodal perceptionThe Lucretius Problem illustration: examples of the biggest occurrences in history, like a market crash, a volcano eruption, a long drought and a traffic delay tend to be perceived as the biggest there could ever be. The Lucretius problemGaslighting illustration: an individual making a speech at their lectern tells lie after lie after lie. As the lies keep coming an audience member starts to question their own, previously firm, understanding. Gaslighting9-enders (nine-enders) explanation: people approaching their 30s, 40s and 50s, examining their lives for meaning and setting off skydiving, running marathons and climbing Everest9-Enders (nine-enders)Buyer's remorse illustration: a customer hands over cash to a car dealer seemingly very excited about their new purchase. At the wheel of their new car as they drive away, they begin to question their decision. Buyer’s remorseWhat is The Singularity Effect explained: a line graph shows how the value of and compassion for saving a life quickly diminishes as the number of lives at risk increases. The singularity effectEmotional hot potato cartoon: spreading a bad mood through a family to the dog who pees on the floorEmotional hot potatoPsychic Numbing Illustration: A radio plays out the news headlines. The story about a young girl is met with empathy. Another story about thousands of people dying is met with apathy. Psychic numbingMean world syndrome illustration: showing how those who watch more believe the world is a meaner placeMean world syndromeJohari Window model illustrating self-awareness through feedback and disclosure in four quadrants: Open Self, Blind Spot, Hidden Self, and Unknown Self.Johari Window — A Model for Self-Awareness, Feedback, and Personal GrowthNominative determinism examples — or an aptronym — with 3 books and their nominatively deterministic authorsNominative determinismWhat is the Peak-end rule example: chart showing two experience lines, one with more downs that ends on a high that's remembered as better than the one that's more steady throughoutThe peak-end ruleGoldilocks Tasks: a spectrum where the challenge is not too easy, not too hard, but just right for flow and masteryGoldilocks tasksThe Kübler-Ross Stages of Grief Model in a chart with stages: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, AcceptanceStages of griefWhat is The Prisoner's Dilemma shown in an example - When following self-interest can be a worse outcome for allThe prisoner’s dilemmaWhat is the Nocebo Effect with example: expectation of negative consequences of a treatment increases the chances people will feel themThe nocebo effectWhat is the Placebo Effect example where receiving treatment helps people feel better even if the treatment does nothing.The placebo effectPlutchik's Wheel of Emotions: a colourful wheel showing how emotions mixMapping emotionsWhat is the Fresh Start Effect example explained: a brave person thinks challenge accepted on Monday 1st January thanks to the Fresh start effect from Katy MilkmanThe fresh start effectWhat is the IKEA effect example explained - sketch shows a person that put an IKEA table together by themselves, and although it's not a perfect build they still love it, because they put it togetherThe IKEA effectThe frequency illusion explained in a sketch with an expecting couple suddenly seeing babies everywhereThe frequency illusion: we notice what’s top of mindCognitive bias, heuristic, logical fallacy: hidden features of the mindGive gifts others can giveBenefits to you from getting started chart — put it off and stress about it = no benefit, start now with something = some benefitBenefits to you from getting startedAn energised person at 9 am closely contemplates a file while at noon they're down to 'whatever'Don’t make important decisions on an empty stomachProspect theoryPrices written smaller seem more affordable examplePrices written smaller seem more affordableThe decoy priceConscious competence learning model matrix framework, plotting competence (incompetent to competent) against consciousness (unconscious to conscious), showing the four learning stages: conscious incompetence, conscious competence, unconscious incompetence, and unconscious competence.Stages of competence frameworkThe Lake Wobegon EffectCognitive overheadFigure and ground illustration: faces or a candlestick/vaseFigure and groundMental accountingThe Firehouse EffectCore components of riskSurvivorship Bias illustration: two onlookers enjoy the long-lasting, successful design of the fun, iconic Volkswagen Beetle car. One says to the other "They don't make them like they used to" - ignoring the fact that the product they see is undoubtedly the result of many failed prototype designs. Survivorship biasThe Stroop testWhat is the Betty Crocker effect explained with an illustration about adding an eggThe Betty Crocker EffectSneaky casinosSneaky cognitive biases: hindsight bias, loss aversion, recency biasThe Anchoring biasAnchoringNarrative biasFramingHyperbolic discountingPresent biasWhat is The Generalised Peter Principle explained: the example of an overloaded car shows that anything that works will be used in progressively more challenging situations until it failsThe Generalised Peter PrincipleThe moon illusion - psychology and causes still debatedThe moon illusionThe expanding circle of attentionSketches of the laws of expansion: a gantt chart shows Parkinson's Law — Work expands to fill the available time; two houses show Stuff expands to fill the available space; and a budget suitcase shows Cost expands to fill the available budgetLaws of expansionFast and slow thinkingMaslow’s Hierarchy of needsThe 4 pillars of too much: too much stuff, too many choices, too much info and too fastThe four pillars of too muchIf money doesn't make you happy then you probably aren't spending it right. Tips to spend better from Dunn, Gilbert, Wilson, 2011Spend better

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